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Delayed alternation
In operant conditioning delayed alternation refers to the alternation of rewards, especially in maze learning, where a delay is implemented between trials. This requires the subject to alternate their responses in order to gain the reward. Neuroanatomy Neurochemistry Effects of drugs Effects of alcohol See also *Learning *Reinforcement delay *Reinforcement schedules *Response variablity *Spontaneous alternation References & Bibliography Key texts Books Papers *Alber, S. A., & Strupp, B. J. (1996). An in-depth analysis of lead effects in a delayed spatial alternation task: Assessment of mnemonic effects, side bias, and proactive interference: Neurotoxicology and Teratology Vol 18(1) Jan-Feb 1996, 3-15. *Ambrose, M. L., Bowden, S. C., & Whelan, G. (2001). Working memory impairments in alcohol-dependent participants without clinical amnesia: Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research Vol 25(2) Feb 2001, 185-191. *Bardenhagen, F. J., Oscar-Berman, M., & Bowden, S. C. (2007). Rule knowledge aids performance on spatial and object alternation tasks by alcoholic patients with and without Korsakoff's amnesia: Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment Vol 3(6) 2007, 907-918. *Bauman, R. A., & Kant, G. J. (1995). Time cost of alternation reduced demand for food in a closed economy: Physiology & Behavior Vol 57(6) Jun 1995, 1187-1193. *Bauman, R. A., Widholm, J. J., Ghosh, S., & Kant, G. J. (1998). Sustained stress disrupts the performance and acquisition of delayed alternation in rats: Physiology & Behavior Vol 64(4) Jun 1998, 507-512. *Belhaoues, R., Soumireu-Mourat, B., Caverni, J. P., & Roman, F. S. (2005). A novel experimental paradigm for studying cognitive functions related to delayed response tasks in mice: Cognitive Brain Research Vol 23(2-3) May 2005, 199-206. *Bonney, K. R., & Wynne, C. D. L. (2002). Visual discrimination learning and strategy behavior in the fat-tailed dunnarts ( Sminthopsis crassicaudata ): Journal of Comparative Psychology Vol 116(1) Mar 2002, 55-62. *Borde, N., Jaffard, R., & Beracochea, D. J. (1996). Effects of methyl beta-carboline-3-carboxylate on memory impairments induced by chronic alcohol consumption in mice: Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry Vol 20(8) Nov 1996, 1377-1387. *Carter, C. S., Freeman, J. H., & Stanton, M. E. (1995). Neonatal medial prefrontal lesions and recovery of spatial delayed alternation in the rat: Effects of delay interval: Developmental Psychobiology Vol 28(5) Jul 1995, 269-279. *Delatour, B., & Gisquet-Verrier, P. (1996). Prelimbic cortex specific lesions disrupt delayed-variable response tasks in the rat: Behavioral Neuroscience Vol 110(6) Dec 1996, 1282-1298. *Dreher, J.-C., Guigon, E., & Burnod, Y. (2002). A model of prefrontal cortex dopaminergic modulation during the delayed alternation task: Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience Vol 14(6) Aug 2002, 853-865. *Freedman, M. (1994). Frontal and parietal lobe dysfunction in depression: Delayed alternation and tactile learning deficits: Neuropsychologia Vol 32(8) Aug 1994, 1015-1025. *Futter, J. E., & Aggleton, J. P. (2006). How rats perform spatial working memory tasks: Limitations in the use of egocentric and idiothetic working memory: The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol 59(1) Jan 2006, 77-99. *Gagliardo, A., Bonadonna, F., & Divac, I. (1996). Behavioural effects of ablations of the presumed "prefrontal cortex" or the corticoid in pigeons: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 78(2) Aug 1996, 155-162. *Gisquet-Verrier, P., Winocur, G., & Delatour, B. (2000). Functional dissociation between dorsal and ventral regions of the medial prefrontal cortex in rats: Psychobiology Vol 28(2) Jun 2000, 248-260. *Gold, J. M., Berman, K. F., Randolph, C., Goldberg, T. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (1996). PET validation of a novel prefrontal task: Delayed response alteration: Neuropsychology Vol 10(1) Jan 1996, 3-10. *Hatcher, J. P., Loudon, J. M., Hagan, J. J., & Clark, M. S. G. (1998). Sabcomeline (SB-202026), a functionally selective M-sub-1 receptor partial agonist, reverses delay-induced deficits in the T-maze: Psychopharmacology Vol 138(3-4) Aug 1998, 275-282. *Herremans, A. H. J., Hijzen, T. H., Olivier, B., & Slangen, J. L. (1995). Cholinergic drug effects on a delayed conditional discrimination task in the rat: Behavioral Neuroscience Vol 109(3) Jun 1995, 426-435. *Jha, A. P., Fabian, S. A., & Aguirre, G. K. (2004). The role of prefrontal cortex in resolving distractor interference: Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience Vol 4(4) Dec 2004, 517-527. *Le Marec, N., Beaulieu, I., & Godbout, R. (2001). Four hours of paradoxical sleep deprivation impairs alternation performance in a water maze in the rat: Brain and Cognition Vol 46(1-2) Jun-Jul 2001, 195-197. *Levin, E. D., Christopher, N. C., & Briggs, S. J. (1997). Chronic nicotinic agonist and antagonist effects on T-maze alternation: Physiology & Behavior Vol 61(6) Jun 1997, 863-866. *Levin, H. S., Culhane, K. A., Fletcher, J. M., Mendelsohn, D. B., & et al. (1994). Dissociation between delayed alternation and memory after pediatric head injury: Relationship to MRI findings: Journal of Child Neurology Vol 9(1) Jan 1994, 81-89. *Ludvig, E. A., & Staddon, J. E. R. (2005). The effects of interval duration on temporal tracking and alternation learning: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior Vol 83(3) May 2005, 243-262. *Mao, J.-B., & Robinson, J. K. (1998). Microinjection of GABA-A agonist muscimol into the dorsal but not the ventral hippocampus impairs non-mnemonic measures of delayed non-matching-to-position performance in rats: Brain Research Vol 784(1-2) Feb 1998, 139-147. *Markowska, A. L., Koliatsos, V. E., Breckler, S. J., Price, D. L., & et al. (1994). Human nerve growth factor improves spatial memory in aged but not in young rats: Journal of Neuroscience Vol 14(8) Aug 1994, 4815-4824. *Markowski, V. P., Cox, C., Preston, R., & Weiss, B. (2002). Impaired cued delay alternation behavior in adult rat offspring following exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on gestation day 15: Neurotoxicology and Teratology Vol 24(2) Mar-Apr 2002, 209-218. *Maruki, K., Izaki, Y., Hori, K., Nomura, M., & Yamauchi, T. (2001). Effects of rat ventral and dorsal hippocampus temporal inactivation on delayed alternation task: Brain Research Vol 895(1-2) Mar 2001, 273-276. *Meneses, S., Galicia, O., & Brailowsky, S. (1993). Chronic infusions of GABA into the medial prefrontal cortex induce spatial alternation deficits in aged rats: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 57(1) Oct 1993, 1-7. *Mogensen, J., Boyd, M. H., Nielsen, M. D., Kristensen, R. S., & Mala, H. (2008). Erythropoietin improves spatial delayed alternation in a T-maze in rats subjected to ablation of the prefrontal cortex: Brain Research Bulletin Vol 77(1) Sep 2008, 1-7. *Mogensen, J., & Divac, I. (1993). Behavioural effects of ablation of the pigeon-equivalent of the mammalian prefrontal cortex: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 55(1) May 1993, 101-107. *Mogensen, J., Hjortkjaer, J., Ibervang, K. L., Stedal, K., & Mala, H. (2007). Prefrontal cortex and hippocampus in posttraumatic functional recovery: Spatial delayed alternation by rats subjected to transection of the fimbria--fornix and/or ablation of the prefrontal cortex: Brain Research Bulletin Vol 73(1-3) Jun 2007, 86-95. *Moritz, S., Fricke, S., Wagner, M., & Hand, I. (2001). Further evidence for delayed alternation deficits in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease Vol 189(8) Aug 2001, 562-564. *Neave, N., Lloyd, S., Sahgal, A., & Aggleton, J. P. (1994). Lack of effect of lesions in the anterior cingulate cortex and retrosplenial cortex on certain tests of spatial memory in the rat: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 65(1) Nov 1994, 89-101. *Papadimitriou, A., & Wynne, C. D. L. (1999). Preserved negative patterning and impaired spatial learning in pigeons (Columba livia) with lesions of the hippocampus: Behavioral Neuroscience Vol 113(4) Aug 1999, 683-690. *Peinado-Manzano, M., & Pozo-Garcia, R. (1996). Retrograde amnesia in rats with dorsomedial thalamic damage: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 80(1-2) Oct 1996, 177-184. *Reynolds, B., & Schiffbauer, R. (2004). Measuring state changes in human delay discounting: An experiential discounting task: Behavioural Processes Vol 67(3) Nov 2004, 343-356. *Roegge, C. S., Widholm, J. J., Engeseth, N. J., Wang, X., Brosch, K. O., Seegal, R. F., et al. (2005). Delayed spatial alternation impairments in adult rats following dietary n - 6 deficiency during development: Neurotoxicology and Teratology Vol 27(3) May-Jun 2005, 485-495. *Rosvold, H. E., & Delgado, J. M. R. (1956). The effect on delayed-alternation test performance of stimulating or destroying electrically structures within the frontal lobes of the monkey's brain: Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Vol 49(4) Aug 1956, 365-372. *Roux, S., Hubert, I., Lenegre, A., Milinkevitch, D., & et al. (1994). Effects of piracetam on indices of cognitive function in a delayed alternation task in young and aged rats: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 49(3) Nov 1994, 683-688. *Ryou, J.-W., & Wilson, F. A. W. (2004). Making your next move: Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and planning a sequence of actions in freely moving monkeys: Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience Vol 4(4) Dec 2004, 430-443. *Sanchez-Santed, F., de Bruin, J. P. C., Heinsbroek, R. P. W., & Verwer, R. W. H. (1997). Spatial delayed alternation of rats in a T-maze: Effects of neurotoxic lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex and of T-maze rotations: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 84(1-2) Mar 1997, 73-79. *Soriano-Mas, C., Redolar-Ripoll, D., Aldavert-Vera, L., Morgado-Bernal, I., & Segura-Torres, P. (2005). Post-training intracranial self-stimulation facilitates a hippocampus-dependent task: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 160(1) May 2005, 141-147. *Spinella, M. (2002). Correlations among behavioral measures of orbitofrontal function: International Journal of Neuroscience Vol 112(11) Nov 2002, 1359-1369. *Tanila, H., Rama, P., & Carlson, S. (1996). The effects of prefrontal intracortical microinjections of an alpha-2 agonist, alpha-2 antagonist and lidocaine on the delayed alternation performance of aged rats: Brain Research Bulletin Vol 40(2) 1996, 117-119. *Thomas, J. D., Wasserman, E. A., West, J. R., & Goodlett, C. R. (1996). Behavioral deficits induced by bingelike exposure to alcohol in neonatal rats: Importance of developmental timing and number of episodes: Developmental Psychobiology Vol 29(5) Jul 1996, 433-452. *Verin, M., Partiot, A., Pillon, B., Malapani, C., & et al. (1993). Delayed response tasks and prefrontal lesions in man: Evidence for self-generated patterns of behaviour with poor environmental modulation: Neuropsychologia Vol 31(12) Dec 1993, 1379-1396. *Verma, A., & Moghaddam, B. (1996). NMDA receptor antagonists impair prefrontal cortex function as assessed via spatial delayed alternation performance in rats: Modulation by dopamine: Journal of Neuroscience Vol 16(1) Jan 1996, 373-379. *Watanabe, M., Kodama, T., & Hikosaka, K. (1997). Increase of extracellular dopamine in primate prefrontal cortex during a working memory task: Journal of Neurophysiology Vol 78(5) Nov 1997, 2795-2798. *Wenk, G. L., Stoehr, J. D., Mobley, S. L., Gurney, J., & et al. (1996). Age-related decrease in vulnerability to excitatory amino acids in the nucleus basalis: Neurobiology of Aging Vol 17(1) Jan-Feb 1996, 1-7. *White, A., & Dunnett, S. B. (2006). Fronto-striatal disconnection disrupts operant delayed alternation performance in the rat: Neuroreport: For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience Research Vol 17(4) Mar 2006, 435-441. *Wiley, J. L., Buhler, K. G., Lavecchia, K. L., & Johnson, K. M. (2003). Pharmacological challenge reveals long-term effects of perinatal phencyclidine on delayed spatial alternation in rats: Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry Vol 27(5) Aug 2003, 867-873. *Williams, F. E., White, D., & Messer, W. S., Jr. (2002). A simple spatial alternation task for assessing memory function in zebrafish: Behavioural Processes Vol 58(3) Jun 2002, 125-132. *Wortwein, G., Mogensen, J., & Divac, I. (1994). Retention and relearning of spatial delayed alternation in rats after ablation of the prefrontal or total non-prefrontal isocortex: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 63(2) Aug 1994, 127-131. *Zald, D. H., Curtis, C., Folley, B. S., & Pardo, J. V. (2002). Prefrontal contributions to delayed spatial and object alternation: A positron emission tomography study: Neuropsychology Vol 16(2) Apr 2002, 182-189. 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